Dilutions
[Ron Harris]
Is Homeopathy Quackery? – The Theory
of Dilutions
Ron Harris presents a dissertation
on the theory of dilutions, reflecting on principles of chemistry, Avogadro’s
number, Brownian motion and more.
The Major criticism leveled at homeopathy is the theory of dilutions and
how homeopathic remedies are prepared. It is common knowledge that both
homeopaths and scientists use exactly the
same process of dilution. Scientifically, in a given concentrated
solution containing one part solute to one part solvent, as the quantity of a
solvent is increased, while the quantity of a solute
remains constant, it is called dilution.
We dilute a substance again and again.
Similarly homeopathic dilution is repeated serially.
Scientifically
in each dilution, as the quantity of solvent increases, while that of the
solute remains constant, the end product, called a solution is weaker. That is
say the distribution of solute in
proportion
to the solvent has decreased. This is the concentration of the solution or
molecules of solute in the given solvent.
Homeopaths
claim that each dilution is meant to make the remedy increasingly stronger by
which they mean more potent.
To
question this, one must understand the concept of dilution. When a homoeopathic
remedy is first prepared, a substance called solute is dissolved in alcohol or
water called the solvent.
This mixture is known as the ‘mother
tincture’ denote by the symbol Ø. This
is then serially diluted usually by either 1 part in 10 (X potencies) or 1 part
in 100 (C potencies). The following example
uses C potencies for illustration,
but the process is identical for both. If we start with 1.000 ml of remedy,
then 10 ml would be taken from it and added to 990 ml of water.
As
an example, let’s consider the compound Sodium Chloride (common salt). The
molecular weight of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is 58.44, therefore 58.44 grams of
NaCl is one mole or 6.022 x 1023
molecules.
A one molar solution is where one mole of substance is dissolved in a total
volume of 1 liter of solvent. In our case 58.44 grams of NaCl dissolved in
water to a total volume of one liter
(1.000
ml) would give us our starting solution. That is one liter of water that
contains 6.022 x1023 molecules of Sodium Chloride dissolved in it. This is the
standardized mother tincture.
Now that we know how many molecules
we have in the starting solution, it’s just a case of keeping track of the
numbers as we serially dilute it.
In “C” potencies, there is a dilution of 1 in 100 at each step. That
means that out of our 1 liter (1000 ml) starting solution we take 10 ml and
dissolve it in another 990 ml of water. This means that the number of molecules
present reduces by a factor of 100 at each step.
A
1C dilution would therefore contain 6.022 x 1021 molecules of NaCl.
A
2C dilution would contain 6.022 x 1019 molecules of NaCl.
A
3C dilution would contain 6.022 x 1017 molecules of NaCl.
And
so on with the number of molecules present reducing by a factor of 100 (or 102)
with each step.
A
10 C dilution would contain 6.022 x 1023 molecules of NaCl; in other words
6,022 molecules in the solution.
At 11 C we have 60 molecules
present.
At 12 C we have 0.6 molecules present,
or more strictly a probability of 0.6 that 1 molecule is present.
No argument, no contradictions as
both homeopaths and scientists agree with this. The process fully obeys the
laws of science. Both parties precisely follow this process.
A homeopathic remedy consists of 2 parts – a numerical number and a
letter. Thus 1x means 1/10 dilution. That is 1 part homeopathic remedy and 9
parts of distilled water and alcohol. The chart below explains the process:
X=1/10, C=1/100, M=1/1000 and LM =
1/50,000 Further X is same as D and is same as DH. C is same as CH and is same
as CK.
H
indicates that the medicine was prepared according to the Hahnemann method. The
Hahnemanian method uses 1 part of the homeopathic potency to 99 parts of
alcohol in a new flask and
succussed
to make the next higher potency on the centesimal scale. K indicates the Korsakovian method was
employed to produce the higher potencies of 200 C and above. In the Korsakovian
method the same container is used
for each succession of the dilution step.
Homeopaths further prepare remedies in various ways. The process of
adding water to a homeopathic remedy is known by practitioners as dynamisation
or potentization whereby a substance is diluted with alcohol or distilled water
and then vigorously shaken in a process called “succussion”.
According
to homeopathy, the larger the quantity of water, the more diluted the
solution. The more diluted the solution,
the much stronger is the solution. In other words, if we add 1 mg of NaCl
(Chemical
formula) or Natrum Muriaticum (Latin name) or Sodium Chloride (Chemical name)
or Salt (Common name) to 1ml of water, the dilution is 1 to 1. If we add 1 mg
of NaCl to 1000 ml (1L)
of
water, the dilution is 1 to 1000.
Scientifically a molecule commonly referred to as a mole, is the
smallest quantity of a substance that may exist in nature. To understand the concept, it is best to look
at an example of a substance called Sodium Chloride as a solute and water being
a solvent.
A molecule of a substance consists of three particles, namely protons,
electrons and neutrons. Protons carry a positive charge, electrons carry a
negative charge and neutrons have no charge. We are concerned only with
electrons, since they carry an electric charge – a form of energy. Electrons
are present in fixed numbers in each of the shells surrounding neutrons and
protons.
A
molecule of Sodium Chloride, commonly called salt, consists of a Sodium
molecule and a Chloride molecule. Sodium
is a soft metal, easily cut with a knife that bursts into flame when it comes
into
contact with water. For this reason, obviously no one will consume pure sodium.
It is in the first family of the periodic table of elements. Its chemical
symbol is Na, which in Latin means Natrum.
Its
atomic number is 11 and its mass is 23. This means its configuration is 2, 8,
1. This is to say the first shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons and is
therefore complete. The second shell can hold a
maximum
of 8 electrons and is complete. The third shell can hold a maximum of 8
electrons, but only 1 electron is available, therefore it comes under the first
family and we say a molecule of Sodium
has
7 vacancies. Science is supposed to be
an exact and precise subject, yet Natrum with a precisely correct chemical
symbol Na for some unknown reason is called Sodium.
Chlorine, a non-metal is a greenish-yellow gas at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure. It is two and a half times heavier than air. It has a choking odor, and inhalation causes
suffocation, constriction of the chest, tightness in the throat, and—after
severe exposure – edema (filling with fluid) of the lungs. As little as one
part per thousand in air causes death within a few minutes. Chlorine falls
under the seventh family. Its chemical symbol is correctly shown as Cl. However
its Latin name is muraticum and again for some unknown reason we call it
chlorine. Its atomic number is 17. This means its configuration is 2, 8, 7.
Thus the third shell, which can hold a maximum of 8 electrons; it has one
vacancy.
Na+1+ Cl-1 → NaCl means one
molecule of Sodium reacts with one molecule of Chlorine to produce one molecule
of Sodium Chloride (Natrum Muriaticum) or salt.
Sodium being a metal donated its single electron in the last shell to
Chlorine. Now Sodium 2,8 and Chlorine
2,8,8 are both complete and the neutral new substance formed is Sodium
Chloride, which is very much consumed.
As
mentioned above, in chemistry we use a measure known as a “mole” which is
simply the molecular weight of a substance in grams. The convenience of using
moles is that no matter what the
substance
is, one mole always contains the same number of atoms or molecules. This is
known as Avogadro’s number NA 6.022 x 1023 objects per mole.
The Major Criticism
This has raised several questions. The major criticism leveled at
homeopathy is that the remedies are so diluted that there is little chance of
there even being a single molecule of the starting material left in the final
remedy. Some scientists therefore claim homeopathic remedies can’t possibly
work, because they contain no active ingredients.
Once we pass this dilution point, known as the
Avogadro limit, there is no more starting material in the solution. Any
dilution beyond 12C (or 24X) simply means that water is being dissolved in more
water. This is why scientists claim homeopathic remedies that have potencies
over 12C do not contain even a single molecule of active ingredient. However the least diluted homeopathic
remedies come in potency of 3C or below. This means that there may well be some
of the starting material present in the final remedy.
Ron Harris presents a dissertation
on the theory of dilutions, reflecting on principles of chemistry, Avogadro’s
number, Brownian motion and more.
The Major criticism leveled at
homeopathy is the theory of dilutions and how homeopathic remedies are
prepared. It is common knowledge that both homeopaths and scientists use
exactly the same process of dilution. Scientifically, in a given concentrated
solution containing one part solute to one part solvent, as the quantity of a
solvent is increased, while the quantity of a solute remains constant, it is
called dilution. We dilute a substance
again and again. Similarly homeopathic
dilution is repeated serially.
Scientifically in each dilution, as
the quantity of solvent increases, while that of the solute remains constant,
the end product, called a solution is weaker. That is say the distribution of
solute in proportion to the solvent has decreased. This is the concentration of
the solution or molecules of solute in the given solvent.
Homeopaths claim that each dilution
is meant to make the remedy increasingly stronger by which they mean more
potent.
To question this, one must understand the concept of dilution. When a
homoeopathic remedy is first prepared, a substance called solute is dissolved
in alcohol or water called the solvent. This mixture is known as the ‘mother
tincture’ denote by the symbol ɸ. This is then serially diluted usually by
either 1 part in 10 (X potencies) or 1 part in 100 (C potencies). The following
example uses C potencies for illustration, but the process is identical for
both. If we start with 1,000 ml of remedy, then 10 ml would be taken from it
and added to 990 ml of water.
As
an example, let’s consider the compound Sodium Chloride (common salt). The
molecular weight of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is 58.44, therefore 58.44 grams of
NaCl is one mole or 6.022 x 1023
molecules.
A one molar solution is where one mole of substance is dissolved in a total
volume of 1 liter of solvent. In our case 58.44 grams of NaCl dissolved in
water to a total volume of one liter
(1,000
ml) would give us our starting solution. That is one liter of water that
contains 6.022 x1023 molecules of Sodium Chloride dissolved in it. This is the
standardized mother tincture.
Now that we know how many molecules
we have in the starting solution, it’s just a case of keeping track of the
numbers as we serially dilute it.
In “C” potencies, there is a dilution
of 1 in 100 at each step. That means that out of our 1 liter (1000 ml) starting
solution we take 10 ml and dissolve it in another 990 ml of water. This means
that the number of molecules present reduces by a factor of 100 at each step.
A 1C dilution would therefore
contain 6.022 x 1021 molecules of NaCl.
A 2C dilution would contain 6.022 x
1019 molecules of NaCl.
A 3C dilution would contain 6.022 x
1017 molecules of NaCl.
And so on with the number of
molecules present reducing by a factor of 100 (or 102) with each step.
A 10 C dilution would contain 6.022
x 1023 molecules of NaCl; in other words 6,022 molecules in the solution.
At 11 C we have 60 molecules
present.
At 12 C we have 0.6 molecules
present, or more strictly a probability of 0.6 that 1 molecule is present.
No argument, no contradictions as
both homeopaths and scientists agree with this. The process fully obeys the
laws of science. Both parties precisely follow this process.
A homeopathic remedy consists of 2 parts – a numerical number and a
letter. Thus 1x means 1/10 dilution. That is 1 part homeopathic remedy and 9
parts of distilled water and alcohol. The chart below explains the process:
X=1/10, C=1/100, M=1/1000 and LM = 1/50,000
Further X is same as D and is same as DH. C is same as CH and is same as CK.
H indicates that the medicine was prepared according to the Hahnemann
method. The Hahnemanian method uses 1 part of the homeopathic potency to 99
parts of alcohol in a new flask and succussed to make the next higher potency
on the centesimal scale. K indicates the
Korsakovian method was employed to produce the higher potencies of 200 C and
above. In the Korsakovian method the same container is used for each succession
of the dilution step.
Homeopaths further prepare remedies in various ways. The process of
adding water to a homeopathic remedy is known by practitioners as dynamisation
or potentization whereby a substance is diluted with alcohol or distilled water
and then vigorously shaken in a process called “succussion”.
According to homeopathy, the larger the quantity of water, the more
diluted the solution. The more diluted
the solution, the much stronger is the solution. In other words, if we add 1 mg
of NaCl (Chemical formula) or Natrum Muriaticum (Latin name) or Sodium Chloride
(Chemical name) or Salt (Common name) to 1ml of water, the dilution is 1 to 1.
If we add 1 mg of NaCl to 1000 ml (1L) of water, the dilution is 1 to 1000.
Scientifically a molecule commonly referred to as a mole, is the
smallest quantity of a substance that may exist in nature. To understand the concept, it is best to look
at an example of a substance called Sodium Chloride as a solute and water being
a solvent.
A molecule of a substance consists of three particles, namely protons,
electrons and neutrons. Protons carry a positive charge, electrons carry a
negative charge and neutrons have no charge. We are concerned only with
electrons, since they carry an electric charge – a form of energy. Electrons
are present in fixed numbers in each of the shells surrounding neutrons and
protons.
A molecule of Sodium Chloride, commonly called salt, consists of a
Sodium molecule and a Chloride molecule.
Sodium is a soft metal, easily cut with a knife that bursts into flame
when it comes into contact with water. For this reason, obviously no one will
consume pure sodium. It is in the first family of the periodic table of
elements. Its chemical symbol is Na, which in Latin means Natrum. Its atomic
number is 11 and its mass is 23. This means its configuration is 2, 8, 1. This
is to say the first shell can hold a maximum of 2 electrons and is therefore
complete. The second shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons and is complete.
The third shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons, but only 1 electron is
available, therefore it comes under the first family and we say a molecule of
Sodium has 7 vacancies. Science is
supposed to be an exact and precise subject, yet Natrum with a precisely
correct chemical symbol Na for some unknown reason is called Sodium.
Chlorine, a non-metal is a greenish-yellow gas at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure. It is two and a half times heavier than air. It has a choking odor, and inhalation causes
suffocation, constriction of the chest, tightness in the throat, and—after
severe exposure – edema (filling with fluid) of the lungs. As little as one
part per thousand in air causes death within a few minutes. Chlorine falls
under the seventh family. Its chemical symbol is correctly shown as Cl. However
its Latin name is muraticum and again for some unknown reason we call it
chlorine. Its atomic number is 17. This means its configuration is 2, 8, 7.
Thus the third shell, which can hold a maximum of 8 electrons; it has one
vacancy.
Na+1+ Cl-1 → NaCl means one
molecule of Sodium reacts with one molecule of Chlorine to produce one molecule
of Sodium Chloride (Natrum Muriaticum) or salt.
Sodium being a metal donated its
single electron in the last shell to Chlorine.
Now Sodium 2,8 and Chlorine 2,8,8 are both complete and the neutral new
substance formed is Sodium Chloride, which is very much consumed.
As mentioned above, in chemistry we
use a measure known as a “mole” which is simply the molecular weight of a
substance in grams. The convenience of using moles is that no matter what the
substance is, one mole always contains the same number of atoms or molecules.
This is known as Avogadro’s number NA 6.022 x 1023 objects per mole.
The Major Criticism
This has raised several questions.
The major criticism leveled at homeopathy is that the remedies are so diluted
that there is little chance of there even being a single molecule of the
starting material left in the final remedy. Some scientists therefore claim
homeopathic remedies can’t possibly work, because they contain no active
ingredients.
Once we pass this dilution point,
known as the Avogadro limit, there is no more starting material in the
solution. Any dilution beyond 12C (or 24X) simply means that water is being
dissolved in more water. This is why scientists claim homeopathic remedies that
have potencies over 12C do not contain even a single molecule of active
ingredient. However the least diluted
homeopathic remedies come in potency of 3C or below. This means that there may
well be some of the starting material present in the final remedy.
The theory posits that pressure is
due not to static repulsion between molecules, as was Isaac Newton’s
conjecture, but due to collisions between molecules moving at different
velocities through Brownian motion. While the particles making up a gas are too
small to be visible, the motion of particles can be seen under a microscope,
known as Brownian motion, results directly from collisions between the particle
and gas molecules, as pointed out by Albert Einstein in 1905.
The process is easily understood
when applied to gasses, but to study the action of the molecules, one must use
a theoretical model. The individual molecules possess the standard physical
properties of mass, momentum, and energy. In a solid, the location of the
molecules relative to each other remains almost constant. When one of the
molecular bullets hits the wall of a container it exerts a force on the wall –
exactly as a ball thrown at an open door exerts a force and will slightly move
it. All the rebounds of the molecules add together and make up the pressure of
the gas. If the volume of the vessel containing the gas is halved the number of
impacts per second will be doubled, so the pressure will also double. This is
the explanation of Boyle’s law which states that pressure × volume = constant.
Chemistry in relation to drugs
consists of two branches – inorganic chemistry and organic chemistry. The
science of drugs be it allopathic drugs or homeopathic drugs mostly concerns
organic chemistry. This is particular interest to homeopaths, who have been
criticized based on the idea that a homeopathic remedy when diluted produces an
end product with no solute in it at all, not even at ultra-microscopic level.
Homeopathy is based on a natural
phenomenon of healing which is now commonly referred to as “like cures like.”
Classical healers have known this basic principle of “like cures like”
throughout history. Hippocrates (460 – 350 B.C.), regarded as the “father of
medicine,” who authored the Hippocratic oath, wrote, “By similar things a
disease is produced and through the application of the like, is cured.”
Aristotle (384 – 322B.C.) knew the principle as well, and wrote, “Often the
simile acts upon the simile.” Samuel
Hahnemann simply followed in the footsteps of these great scientists and said,
“Like cures like,” (or traditionally in Latin, “Similia similibus curentur”).
If you look at the picture below,
you find we have a glass vessel containing Glacial acetic acid as a solute and two
electrodes connected to an electrical source.
Glacial acetic acid (concentrated) by itself does not light the bulb. As
water is added as a solvent, that is say glacial acid is diluted more and more,
the light gets brighter and brighter. It apparently supports the claim by
homeopaths that on dilution the solute releases more of its energy and it is
this energy that helpa a sick person to recuperate.
It took centuries to define the
exact speed of light and theoretically nothing can travel at a speed faster
than light. However, today we constantly find particles that do that.
Obviously, around the 1600’s science had not yet progressed to correctly
measure the speed of light and the changes shall continue with the progress in
technology. Similarly, the value of
Avogadro has constantly changed and the present value is subject to error.
It took approximately 50 years for
scientists to realize the origin of Brownian motion discovered by Scottish
botanist Robert Brown and to be convinced that they showed the ideas of the
kinetic theory and the reality of molecules. For centuries anyone who in any
way spoke of science was crucified and even today the pseudo belief that
science is evil continues.
If ever a man lived who gave more to
modern science yet – possibly through the action and ill-will of at least one
of his contemporaries – has remained largely unacknowledged, it is Robert Hooke
– inventor, microscopist, physicist, surveyor, astronomer, biologist and an
artist robbed of credit for his greatest inspirations and ideas, with many of
his creations almost certainly willfully destroyed or lost after his death in
1703. Only now after 300 years are his life and extraordinary achievements
beginning to receive the just recognition they so truly deserve.
One can be sure, that when the time
comes and science progresses further, Hahnemann will receive the well deserved
recognition of his principles as Galileo, Hook and others.
The author thanks all those whose
work he may have used in this dissertation, particularly those scientists, who
know too well that a scientist should be unbiased and that science is not a
constant but a changing modality dependent directly on the progress and
technology in the field of science.
Amedeo Avodagro (9th July
1776 – 9th July 1856) was born in Turin, Italy. He graduated in
ecclesiastical law at age 20 and began to practice law. However, Avogadro also
was interested in the natural sciences and in 1800 he began private studies in
physics and mathematics. In 1809, he started teaching the natural sciences in a
liceo high school in Vericelli. It was in Vericelli that Avogadro wrote a
memoria (concise note) in which he declared the hypothesis that is now known as
Avogadro’s law.
Samuel Hahnemann (10th April
1755 – 2nd July 1843) was born in Saxony, Germany He discovered the
“Law of Similars” while researching Cinchona bark which is used to treat
malaria. Hahnemann was in perfect health when he began taking this Peruvian
bark 2x daily for several days. He reported that he began showing symptoms
identical to malaria. Upon conclusion of the experiment, he realized that
medicinal substances create symptoms in healthy people that were identical to
the diseases they were meant to treat. This was the beginning of Dr.
Hahnemann’s distinguished career in homeopathy which lead to widespread
acceptance of his method around the world.