Alkaloiden allgemein Enthalten immer N.
[Yasgur]
An alkaloid is any of various physiologically active nitrogen-containing
organic bases derived from plants.
Generally bitter in taste and alkaline in reaction and unite with acids
to form salts. Their common names usually end in –in.
Alkaloids = Nitrogen-containing natural products, mostly found in
actively growing young tissues [van Wyk and Wink, 2004]
[Bronwyn Claire Harris]
Alkaloid: A nitrogen containing substance which tends to have strong
actions and can effect a wide range of functions in the body (Balkarn,
1995:32).
‡ Gleichgewicht:
macht Wahrnehmung bewusst. Bewegen sich zwischen Bewusstsein + Organen/Auf- und
Abbau,
Ungleichgewicht
= ANGST. Stoffen, die Schritten der Pflanzen ins Tierische angeben
Pflanzengiften sind Stoffwechselausscheidungen. Werden in Mineral-salzige
ausgeschieden. Haben Astralwirkung in physischem Leib.
Alkaloiden
= N-haltige Substanzen ‡
Alkaloide (muskelerschlaffend/sekretionfördernd/lähmend/narkotisch/mindern Herzfrequenz)/Flavonoide (Antioxidanzien/wirken fördernd auf das Langzeit-Gedächtnis)
Piper belle hat Alkaloidenähnliche Basen aus Aminosäuren entstanden
Theophylline, caffeine and theobromine closely related alkaloids known
as xanthines.
[Ashley
Hilton/Adrian Ross]
Alkaloiden
in Strychnos henningsii:
Diaboline: a convulsant and therefore causes seizures (Wikipedia, The
Free Encyclopedia, 2009).
Holstiine: has antiplasmodial activity, and can therefore be effectively
used as an anti-malarial (Ayuko, Njau, Cornelius, Leah, Ndiege, 2008).
Strychnochromine and Guianensine: These alkaloids are effective against Plasmodium falciparum (Frederich, Hayette, Tits, De Mol,
Angenot, 1999:2329).
[Rall (1980:592-593)]
Theophylline, caffeine and theobromine are closely related known as xanthines.
According to him, they share
common pharmacological actions incl. diuresis, central nervous system
stimulation, cardiac stimulation and smooth
muscle relaxation; notably bronchial smooth muscle.
Vergleich. Enthalten in Acal. + Adianthum capillius + Aegle + Agn + Argyreia nervosa + Scop-ähnliche Wirkung)Aven + Banis-c + Bapt + Berb-a + Boldo +
Borra-o + Cact + Caul-robustum + Cean + Chel (24 Stück) + Chin + Chrysan-indicum + Clivia + Cocc-s. (sondert bei Gefahr eine gelbliche, übelriechende
Flüssigkeit ab, die giftige Alkaloide enthält, und stellt sich dabei tot) + Coptis chinensis + trifolia + Cory-gariana + Cub + Cur + Dulc + Echi + Equis + Esch +
Foenm-g + Fritillaria imperialis + Frittilaria thunbergii + Gent-macro-phillia + Hydr. + Hydrc. + Ip +
Just + Narc-ps + Nux-v + Nymph. + Paeon +
Pareir +
Pergala + Phellodendron amurense + Pip-n (bis 90%) + Pulmo + Queb +
Rham-f + Ribes-n + Sabad + Saussarea lappa + Stigm + Scroph + Spig + Spig-m +
Staph + Stach + Still + Symph + Syzyg + Swertia Chirata + Tax + Tuss-fa
+ Tust-eq + Typh-i + Uncaria rhynchophylla + Xan (stimulans) + Yohimb + Vinc.
Betin-m (wird aus Alkaloide gewonnen/als Mur-ac-ersatz verwendet).
Siehe: Giftgruppe + ‡ Mondzeitaltergruppe ‡ + Anhang (Pflanzen mit hohem Alkaloiden- und Tannin-Gehalt)
Allerlei: Binden Aminosäuren/Trennung durch Verdauung ruft Reaktion im Nervensystem hervor
Sind als Nitrogeniumverbindungen in Pflanzen/Tierorganismen vorhanden
Plants containing
pyrrolizidine alkaloids:
Asteraceae
Boraginaceae
Symphytum officinale
Symphytum x uplandicum
Borago officinalis
Alkanna tinctoria
Anchusa officinalis
Cynoglossum officinale
Heliotropium arborescens
Lithospermum officinale
Myosotis scorpioides
Symphytum asperum
Symphytum tuberosum
Pyrrolizidines
Senecio aureus
Tussilago farfara
Adenostyles alliariae
Emilia sonchifolia
Eupatorium cannabinum
Petasites hybridus
Petasites spurius
Senecio cineraria
Senecio doronicum
Senecio jacobaea
Senecio nemorensis
Senecio vulgaris
4.1. Medicinal plants of the
family Boraginaceae containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
4.1.1. Alkanna tinctoria (L.) Tausch
Alcannet (ger. Alkanna, fr. Orcanette tinctoriale, it. Ancusa), grows in
South Europe, Turkey and Egypt and is still today cultivated in these
countries. From time immemorial the
root of this herb is applied internally as antidiarrheal agent and
externally in cases of skin diseases. Due to its intensively purple-colored
dyestuffs, called alkannins, the bark of
the root is also used for staining cosmetics and foods. Three open-chain
alkaloids, 7-angeloylretronecine, triangularine and dihydroxytriangularine,
were isolated from the bark
of the root in a total concentration of 0.25 to 0.3% . The drug should
however no longer be administered internally. Prior to staining of foods, e.g.
of lemonades, alkaloids should
previously be eliminated.
4.1.2. Anchusa officinalis L.
Common bugloss (ger. Ochsenzunge,
fr. Buglosse officinale), is
widely distributed in Europe. The aerial parts of the plant are occasionally
applied externally with contused injuries,
ulcus cruris, sciatica, as compresses with diseases of a joint and of
the adjacent bones, internally as a mild expectorant. The total alkaloid
content of the dried drug is ca. 0. 12%.
Besides the nontoxic alkaloids laburnine and acetyl-laburnine it
contains the toxic alkaloids intermedine, lycopsamine and 7-acetyllycopsamine .
Common bugloss should no longer
be used as medicinal plant.
4.1.3. Borago officinalis L.
Borage (ger. Boretsch, fr. Bourache, it. Boragine) is a native plant. It
is distributed all over Europe from Denmark to Spain and North Africa. It is
cultivated in North America.
Borage herb and flowers are not only used as salade and spice but also
in folk medicine as depuratives, prophylactics against inflammation of the
chest and peritoneum, in cases of
rheumarthritis, cough and throat diseases as well as phlebitis.
Besides the toxic alkaloids intermedine, lycopsamine and their 7-acetyl
derivatives these materials contain in very small amounts the slightly toxic
amabiline, supinine and the
nontoxic thesinin. The total alkaloid amount is less than 0.001%
relative to the dry weight. The German Federal Health Administration (BGA) does
not regard a use of the
claimed fields of applications as justified. On the other hand, there
are no objections against an occasional consumption as a spice.
4.1.4. Cynoglossum officinale L.
Common bugloss, common hounds tongue, Beggar's-lice, (ger. Hundszunge,
fr. Cynoglosse officinale, it. Cinoglosa) is widely distributed in Europe. In
folk medicine the flowering
herb and the roots are applied externally in cases of injuries and
sprainings, internally as antidiarrheal and a mucolytic agent. Common bugloss
contains the alkaloids heliosupine, the
N-oxide of the latter, 12-acetylheliosupine, echinatine and
7-angeloylheliotridine. The alkaloids found by Mankov et al. and Sykulska et
al. by paper chromatography (cynoglossophine,
viridiflorine, lasiocarpine, heliotrine and platyphylline) could not be
confirmed. Since the total content of alkaloids varying from 0.7 to 1.5% is
very high neither the drug nor
preparations there of should be administered. The BGA considers a
therapeutic application no longer justified.
4.1.5. Heliotropium arborescens L, (syn. H. corymbosum) Ruiz. et Pav.
Garden heliotrope, (ger.
Vanille-Heliotrop, Vanille-Sonnenwendkraut, fr. Fleur des Dames, it. Eliotropio) grows in Peru
and Ecuador. In Europa it is cultivated as fragrant ornamental
plant. In medicine it is also applied in homeopathy in cases of
laryngitis and displacement of the uterus. In an older study it was claimed on
the basis of a TLC comparison that the drug
contained the alkaloid lasiocarpine.
A more recent investigation revealed, however, that the plant does not
contain lasiocarpine but indicine and 12-acetylindicine, respectively the
N-oxides of the two compounds in a total
concentration of 0.007% in leaves and of 0.01% in roots. Since
PA-containing homeopathic preparations may be used for human purposes
externally from D4 on and internally from
D6 on there are no objections concerning applications of the indicated
limiting doses in human medicine.
4.1.6. Lithospermum officinale L.
Gromwell, Stone-seed (ger. Steinsame, fr. Grémil officinal, it. Miglio des
Sole) is widely distributed in Europe. In folk medicine it is used as
antipyretic and gout remedy as well as in
cases of urolithic and intestinal complaints. Fresh plant extracts are
supposed to display an anticonceptive effect. From the seeds of the gromwell
the alkaloids lithosenine and
12-acetyllithosenine could be
isolated in a total concentration of 0.003%. The plant or the seed thereof
should, if possible, no longer be used.
4.1.7. Myosotis scorpioides L. (syn. M. palustris (L.) Hill)
True forget-me-not, (ger. Vergissmeinnicht, fr. Myosotis des Marais)
widespread plant in Europe. In folk medicine it is used internally as a
sedative and tonic, externally in eye baths.
In the dried plant the alkaloids myoscorpine, scorpioidine,
7-acetylscorpioidine and symphytine were detected in a total content of 0.08%
[88, 89]. The application of forget-me-not
is considered obsolete.
4.1.8. Symphytum asperum Lepech
Prickly comfrey, Consound. (ger. Rauher Beinwell, fr. Consoud èpineux),
growing in Caucasia is cultivated and used as medicinal and useful plant in the
southern parts of Russia
and in Central Europe like S. officinale and S. x uplandicum. In the
dried leaves the total alkaloid content amounts up to 0.13%, in the dried roots
up to 0.14 to 0.37%. In these
the alkaloids resp. the N-oxides of intermedine and lycopsamine, the
7-acetyl derivatives of the latter two alkaloids (6, 7) symlandine,
symviridine, myoscorpine. symphytine as
well as the major alkaloid echimidine typical of S. asperum were detected
[90, 91]. The presence of the alkaloids asperumine, lasiocarpine, echiumine,
makrotomine, and rousorine
found in the older studies of Manko et al. by means of paper
chromatography could not be confirmed [92-95]. Prickly comfrey should no longer
be used for medicinal purposes.
4.1.9. Symphytum caucasicum Bieb.
Caucasian comfrey (ger. Kaukasischer Beinwell, fr. Consoud de Caucase)
grows in Caucasia and is used there and in the European part of Russia as folk
medicine. In these areas it plays nearly the same important role as S.
officinale in Central Europe. In the seventieth it was repeatedly studied by
Manko et al. who found a total content of 0.48% of PAs.
Among these the following alkaloids were detected by means of paper and
thin-layer chromatography: the N-oxide of echimidine, asperumine, echinatine,
and lasiocarpine. Since the latter three alkaloids have not been found so far
in other species of the genus Symphytum further investigations of S. caucasicum
are required. Owing to its high alkaloid content an internal intake of this
comfrey as a medicinal plant is not recommendable.
4.1.10. Symphytum officinale L. (syn. S. consolida (L.))
Comfrey, Common Comfrey (ger. Beinwell, Wallwurz, fr. Consoude
officinale, it. Consolida maggiore), is widespread in Europe. The area of
distribution extends from Denmark to Central Russia. Both leaves and roots are
used externally in cases of fractures, contused injuries, sprainings,
contusions strains, thrombophlebitis, mastitis, hematoma in the form of
extracts, ointments, compress pastes, etc., internally as infusions and
extracts in cases of gastro-intestinal diseases an respiratory tract diseases.
For vegetarians numerous recipe are offered for the preparation of comfrey
salade, spinach soufflés, soupes, bread, rolls, and root beverages.
In dried leaves 0.02 to 0.18 and in the roots 0.25 to 0.29% alkaloids
resp. their N-oxides were detected. The alkaloid include intermedine,
lycopsamine, their 7-acetyl derivatives, symlandine, symviridine, myoscorpine,
and symphytine. The presence of the alkaloids (echinatine, heliosupine N-oxide,
heliotrine, lasiocarpine, and viridiflorine) isolated and characterized by a
Russian and Polish working group by means of paper chromatography could not be
confirmed.
A possible risk associated with the consumption of Symphytum in humans
was repeatedly reported and in medical literature several cases of intoxication
attributed to Symphytum and comfrey are described. In animal tests acute toxic
effects were detected in rats and goat.
Rats given for a longer period root drug or a mixture of the alkaloids
intermedine and lycopsamine, that are also contained in the comfrey, showed
insuloma tumors of the pancreas, liver adenomas, hemangioendothelial sarcomata,
and tumors of the bladder.
In the long-term test with the root drug carcinogenicity could be
attributed to the main alkaloid symphytine. Moreover, administration of the
total alkaloid extract resulted in a mutagenic effect.
In view of the risks associated with the alkaloid content neither the leaves
nor the root should be used internally. However, under certain conditions there
are no objections to an external use provided the skin is intact. In a study on
the percutaneous absorption of alkaloids from an alcoholic plant extract that
had been applied to the skin of rats 0.08 to 0.41% alkaloid N-oxides wen
detected in the urine even after two days. For therapeutic purposes the BGA
permits ointments and other preparation with 5 to 20% of dried drug to be
applied externally, the daily administered dose being not allowed to contain
more than 10 mg of alkaloids including their N-oxides [134]. These requirements
are met by the application of species of very low alkaloid content.
4.1.11. Symphytum tuberosum L.
Tuberous comfrey (ger. Knoten-Beinwell, fr. Consoud tubereuse), grows in
South-East Europe. Its allantoin content is very high; besides, it contains
symlandine, echimidine and anadoline respectively the N-oxides of these
alkaloids in a total concentration of only 0.02%.
Tuberous comfrey is recommended for medicinal purposes as an alternative
to the other comfrey species.
4.1.12. Symphytum x uplandicum Nyman (syn. S. peregrinum Ledeb.)
Russian comfrey (ger. Russischer Beinwell, fr. Consoud de Russe), is a hybrid
generated from Symphytum officinale L. and S. asperum Lepech. It originates in
Caucasia and has become widespread in Central Europe, England, Canada, USA,
Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Kenia and South Africa. Under the designation of
Russian comfrey it is not only cultivated as medicinal plant but also on a
large scale as vegetable, fodder-and fertilizer plant. Roots and leaves contain
intermedine, lycopsamine, the 7-acetyl derivatives of these alkaloids,
uplandicine, symlandine, symviridine, myoscorpine, symphytine, the major
alkaloid echimidine, and the N-oxides of these compounds in different
concentrations. A total alkaloid content of ca. 0.2% was found in the dried
aerial parts. Russian comfrey should no longer be used for medicinal purposes.
4.2. Medical plants of the family Asteraceae containing pyrrolizidine
alkaloids.
4.2.1. Eupatorium cannabinum L.
Hemp agrimony, Thoroughwort (german Kunigundenkraut, Wasserdost, fr.
Eupatoire chanvrine, it. Canape aquatica), is a widespread plant in Europe which
preferentially grows on humid soils and brook edges. The aerial, flowering
parts are used as immunostimulating agent in cases of influenza infections, as
a remedy against obstipation and for decreasing the cholesterol level as well
as a diuretic. In these parts of the plant the unsaturated alkaloids
intermedine, lycopsamine, amabiline, supinine, rinderine and echinatine were
detected in different concentrations. A continued use,
e.g. for the purpose of decreasing the cholesterol level, should be
renounced.
4.2.2. Adenostyles alliariae (Gouan) Kern
Grey adenostyl (ger. Grauer
Alpendost, fr. Adénostyle
alliaire), is widespread in the countries of the Alps where it grows
preferentially in the region of the timber-line. Until the beginning of this
century it was used by the inhabitants of the Alps as a pectoral tea and as
such relatively important. It contains the alkaloids senecionine,
seneciphylline and spartioidine, the total alkaloid content being ca. 0.02% and
thus relatively high. Recently, a heavy liver disease (venoocclusive disease)
in an infant caused by erroneous ingestion of grey adenostyl instead of
coltsfoot was reported.
4.2.3. Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.
Emilia herb (ger. Emilienkraut), is a medicinal plant widespread in the
south of China. It is used there in folk medicine as antipyretic, as a remedy
against influenza and grippal dysentery and analgetic. Following Tyrolian
physician Leonhard Hohenegg, this herb is praised as a particularly effective
remedy against fever, influenza, cough, and bronchitis in lay medicine. Emilia
herb contains senkirkine and doronine in a total concentration of up to 0.2%.
Application of the amounts of this herb recommended by Hohenegg would
inevitably result in intoxication.
4.2.4. Petasites hybridus (L.) PH Gaertn., B. Mey & Scherb. (syn. P.
officinalis Moench)
Pestilence-wort, Butter bur, Colts food (ger. Pestwurz, Grosser
Huflattich, fr. Pétasite vulgaire, it. Cavo laccio, Petastite, Tussilagine
maggiore), occurs in Central Europe. Its distribution extends from Denmark up
to North and West Asia. It preferentially grows on river banks and brooks. The
leaves and roots of this plant and preparations thereof are applied in cases of
nervous and painful spasmodic stages of different genesis in the
gastro-intestinal tract, liver, gallbladder and pancreas diseases, with
headache, respiratory tract disease, and for the promotion of sleep. Besides
the alkaloids senecionine (40), integerrimine (41), senkirkine (52), the dried
root drug contains trances of petasitenine (57), neopetasitenine (58), the
nontoxic alkaloids neoplatyphylline (49), isotussilagine (68), and tussilagine
(70) in a total amount of 1 to 100 mg per kilogram, the leaf drug contains less
than one tenth of this amount [154-156]. According to the BGA the root-stock
may be applied as therapeutic agent in the treatment of acute convulsive pain
in the region of the abdomen. The daily dose administered must not contain more
than 1 mg of the alkaloids or alkaloid N-oxides and the duration of application
is limited to four to six weeks per year [134].
4.2.5. Petasites spurius (Retz) RCHB
Spurious pestilence-wort (ger.
Filziger Pestwurz, fr. Pétasite
bâtard, Petit Taconnet), grows on the sandy river-banks of the Elbe, Saale,
Havel, Oder, and Spree. In Europe its distribution area extends from Denmark,
South Sweden, South Poland to Central Russia. In the Baltic Sea countries
mentioned the rhizome was or is still used internally as a cough remedy. In
addition to the toxic senkirkine (52) with a concentration of ca. 0.007% also
the nontoxic alkaloids farfugine (31), isotussilagine (68), isotussilaginine
(69), and tussilagine (70) were detected in this plant [157]. An internal
intake cannot be recommended.
4.2.6. Senecio aureus L.
Golden ragwort, Squaw weed, Life root, Stinking Willie (ger. Gold-Kreuzkraut,
fr. Seneçon d'or, it. Senecione
aureono) is widely distributed in North America and Canada where it grows on
humid river-bank meadows. Already the Red Indians cultivated this ragwort as
medicinal plant in many ways. Today it is still used by the aborigines as a
remedy against injuries, internally as diaphoretic, diuretic and emmenagogue.
The Red Indian wives today ingest high doses of this drug both for acceleration
of the the course of labor and abortion. In Europe, especially in Germany, it
is administered in homeopathy as mother tincture and as dilutions down to D3 in
the case of hemorrhage of various kinds of genesis in gynecology. The drug
contains the alkaloids floridanine (53), otosenine (55) and florosenine (56) in
a total concentration of 0.02% [158, 159]. The presence of senecionine could
not be confirmed [160]. According to the regulations of the BGA golden ragwort
is allowed to be applied internally for therapeutic purposes in humans only in
concentrations from D6 on.
4.2.7. Senecio bicolor (Wild.) Tod. ssp. cineraria (syn. S. cineraria
DC., syn. Cineraria maritima L.)
Dusty miller, cineraria ragwort,
silver groundsel (ger. Cineraria-Kreuzkraut, Aschenkraut, fr. Seneçon cineraire) grows in the Mediterranean areas
and is cultivated in Europe as ornamental plant. Extracts of the flowering herb
are administered as eye drops in the treatment of corneal clouding, cataracts
and conjunctivitis especially in the southern EU countries (Portugal). In the
flowering plants senecionine (40), retrorsine (42), seneciphylline (45),
otosenine (55), jaconine (60), and jacobine (61) were detected in a total
concentration of 0.9% [161-167]. According to the regulations of the BGA in the
Federal Republic of Germany eye drops are allowed to be applied externally as a
homeopathic pharmaceutical with a degree of potency of D4 [22].
4.2.8. Senecio doronicum L.
Doronic ragwort (ger.
Gamswurz-Kreuzkraut, fr. Seneçon
Doronic, it. Cardonella) grows on lime soils in the Alps. Infusions of the
flower-head were used by the inhabitants of the Alps as a remedy against
asthma. The flowering plants contain the alkaloids doronenine (66) and
bulgarsenine (67) [168, 169]. Administration of the doronic ragwort as a remedy
against asthma is regarded as obsolete.
4.2.9. Senecio jacobaea L.
Tansy ragwort, European ragwort, (ger. Jakobs-Kreuzkraut, fr.
Seneçon Jacobèe, it. Jacobea)
is widespread in Europe. Until the beginning of this century it was used as
antispasmodic, emmenagogue and in gynecology in cases of functional amenorrhea.
Tansy ragwort contains a large number of PAs. The total alkaloid content
amounts to 0.2 to 0.3% of the dry weight of the flowering plants. The following
alkaloids were isolated from the plant: senecivernine (39), senecionine (40),
integerrimine (41), retrorsine (42), usaramine (43), 21-hydroxyintegerrimine
(44), seneciphylline (45), spartioidine (46), riddelline (47), jacoline (59),
jaconine (60), jacobine (61), jacozine (62), (Z)-erucifoline (63),
(E)-erucifoline (64), and acetylerucifoline (65) [170-190]. In short- and
long-term tests performed on mice and rats the intake of both the powdered drug
and extracts caused acute toxic and carcinogenic effects [191-193]. In the Ames
test ingestion of an alkaloid extract gave rise to a mutagenic effect [194]. Of
course, this medicinal plant should not be used.
4.2.10. Senecio nemorensis L. ssp. fuchsii C. Gmel. (S. nemorensis L.
ssp. fuchsii Celak.), and S. nemorensis ssp. nemorensis (S. nemorensis ssp.
jacquinianus (RCHB.) Celak.)
Both subspecies Fuchsii ragwort (ger. Fuchs-Kreuzkraut, fr. Seneçon de
Fuchs), and Nemorensis ragwort, (ger. Hain-Kreuzkraut, fr. Seneçon de Jaquin),
are closely related to each other, thus allowing formation of hybrids. The
distribution area of fuchsii ragwort extends from Central Europe via the
northern parts of the Balkan to Caucasia. It frequently grows in forests of the
montaneous regions and moreover up to an altitude of 2000 m. Nemorensis ragwort
occurs throughout the European-Siberian areas up to a maximum height of 1500 m.
The two herbs are applied as hemostyptic agents both in dentistry and
gynecology. Recently they have also been recommended and applied as
hypoglycemic agents in cases of hypertension and diabetes. Fuchsii and
nemorensis ragwort contain besides the open-chain PAs of the unsaturated
retronecine and saturated platynecine type such as 7- and 9-angeloylretronecine
(32, 33), 7-senecioylretronecine (34), triangularine (35), fuchsisenecionine,
and sarracine also macrocyclic 12- and 13-membered, saturated and unsaturated
alkaloids. These include platyphylline, nemorensine, bulgarsenine, senecionine,
retroisosenine, doronenine, and the N-oxides of these in very different
concentrations. The medicinal effect is ascribed to the nontoxic, saturated
alkaloids fuchsisenecionine and bulgarsenine which represent the largest
proportion of the alkaloids. In a toxicologic long-term test on rats ingestion
of a commercial dried drug containing besides the nontoxic major alkaloid
fuchsisenecionine in a concentration of 0.37% the toxic senecionine in a
concentration of 0.007% caused a dose-dependent hepatotoxic and carcinogenic
effect. This effect is attributed to senecionine. An alkaloid mixture of the
same concentration displayed weak mutagenic effects. As hemostyptic agent only
extracts of Senecio nemorensis ssp. fuchsii should be administered because in
these extracts the portion of toxic alkaloids is much lower than that in S.
nemorensis ssp. nemorensis. The portion of toxic alkaloids of the retronecine type
such as senecionine, retroisosenine, and doronenine should therefore be less
than 1 mg. Diabetics who frequently had taken ragwort tea for several years in
order to support their therapy should not use such extracts because of the
health risks associated with their ingestion. The BGA generally considers a
medicinal application of fuchsii ragwort and nemorensis ragwort no longer
justified.
4.2.11. Senecio vulgaris L.
Common ragwort, Common groundsel,
Grindsel (= Gewöhnliches Kreuzkraut, fr. Seneçon vulgaire, it. Cardoncello), is widespread in the plains and
mountains of Europe. In folk medicine it played
a certain role as emmenagogue and in cases of functional amenorrhoea.
Besides, it was applied similarly as Senecio jacobaea. Like the latter it
contains an unusually large number of alkaloids up to a total content of 0.16%
dry weight of the aerial whole drug. These alkaloids include senecionine,
integerrimine, retrosine, usamarine, seneciphylline, spartoidine, riddelline,
and the corresponding N-oxides. But also in this case preparations of this
ragwort should neither be recommended nor administered.
4.2.12. Tussilago farfara L.
Coltsfoot, Horsefoot (ger. Huflattich. fr. Pas d'âne, Tussilage, it.
Farfaro) is an important medicinal plant not only in Europe and Asia but also
in the USA and Canada. It either grows in the latter two countries or has been
imported. For medicinal purposes flower buds, flowers, leaves, and roots are
used. From time immemorial coltsfoot has been employed in cases of colds,
asthma, influenza, gastro-enteritis, diarrhea, for metabolic stimulation, blood
purification and externally for the treatment of wounds. Depending on its
origin, the dry drug contains different amounts of senkirkine ranging from 0.1
to 150 ppm, in some cases also 0.1 to 10 ppm of senecionine, besides the
nontoxic alkaloids isotussilagine, isotussilaginine, tussilagine and
tussilaginine, usually in a total amount of <2 ppm. Owing to the known
hepatotoxicity and hepatocarcinogenicity of senkirkine and senecionine a Japanese
working group performed a feeding experiment on rats for nearly two years. At
nonphysiologic high dosage of dried flower buds hemangiosarcomas,
hepatocellular adenomas and carcinomas could be detected.
In 1988, intoxication of an infant resulting in death was ascribed to
coltsfoot. However, from the description of the case and the analysis of the
tea mixture it was concluded that ingestion of coltsfoot was not the factor
causing death. The tea mixture contained in addition to coltsfoot leaves also
leaves and roots of pestilence-wort [230-232]. The BGA permits only leaves and
tea mixtures the toxic PA content of which does not exceed 10 mg. With extracts
and fresh plant-pressed juice the limiting value may be 1 mg. The period of
application is confined to maximally six weeks a year.
4.3. Honey containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Depending on the origin of the nectar collected by the bees, honey also
contain PAs. In honey originating from Senecio jacobaea the alkaloids
senecionine, seneciphylline, jacoline, jaconine, jacobine, and jacozine were
detected in a total concentration of 0.3 to 3.2 mg. From the honey of Senecio
vernalis the alkaloids senecivernine, senecionine and senkirkine were isolated
in a total concentration of ca. 0.5-1.0 mg. In honey from Echium plantagineum
besides echimidine as major component the alkaloids echiumine, uplandicine as
well as intermedine, lycopsamine, and the acetyl derivative of the latter two
compounds were found in a total concentration of 0.27 to 0.95 mg. Macrocyclic
PAs, mainly seneciphylline, could be detected in the concentration range of
30-70 mg/kg in a honey sample from the Alpine foothills region of Switzerland.
Measurable concentrations of PAs must always be reckoned with in the case of
large-area monocultures of PA-containing plants. In England, Scotland and
Ireland honey from is known and notorious for its strong aroma and bitter
taste. This honey obviously also contains alkaloids. However, since honey is of
minor importance as a staple food an intoxication may hardly occur.
5. Toxicity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
Alkaloids derived from 1-hydroxymethyl-l,2-dehydropyrrolizidine and
esterified with at least one branched C5 carboxylic acid display a toxic,
carcinogenic and mutagenic effect. Nearly 100 of the PAs known so far possess
such a structure. Enhancement of the effect occurs if a further hydroxy group
is introduced into the 7-position and also esterified, especially if the
necinediol is esterified with a dicarboxylic acid to afford a macrocyclic
compound. Alkaloid N-oxides, on principle, display the same toxicity. Since
they are, in contrast to the bases, extremely water-soluble they are subject to
different pharmacokinetics. After oral administration the alkaloids or their
N-oxides are resorbed in the intestine, the N-oxides being previously reduced
by the reductases of the bacterial flora.
Part of the alkaloids is cleaved into necines and necic acids by the
nonspecific esterases of the blood. Necines are nontoxic and are excreted as
conjugates via the kidneys and urine. The main proportion of the alkaloids on
the other hand is transported into the liver where metabolic conversions induce
reactions known as "intoxication reactions" <poisonings>.
5.1. Acute and Chronic Toxicity
In liver cells PAs give rise to the following changes:
10- to 30- fold enlargement of
the liver cells (megalocytosis)
enlargement of the liver
nuclei with increasing nuclear chromatin
disturbances of the liver cell
metabolism with considerable functional losses
occurrence of irregular
mitoses with simultaneous inhibition of mitosis due to DNA blocking
cytoclases
fatty degeneration.
These reactions are induced by a single intake of 10 to 20 mg of an
alkaloid or alkaloid mixture.
If cytoclasis comprises larger regions of liver parenchyma death
results.
Lower amounts of alkaloids (less than 10 µg) and longer disposition
periods give rise to further damages:
proliferation of biliary tract
epithelials
inflammatory infiltrates
congestive and centrilobular
necrosis of Venae hepaticae (VOD)
cirrhosis
generation of carcinomas.
This necrosis has been introduced in the medical literature as
Venoocclusive Disease (VOD) and is regarded as specific PA intoxication (seneciosis).
It is practically identical with the clinical picture of the Budd-Chiari
syndrome. The clinical symptoms usually occur suddenly and comprise:
colicky pains in epigastrium
vomiting and diarrhea
ascites formation within
several days
enlargement and induration of
the liver within a few weeks.
In serious cases the following symptoms are additionally observed:
vasomotoric states of collapse
hematemesis
bleeding diarrhea.
The seriousness of the intoxication is not only dependent on the dosis
administered but also on endogenic (age, sex) and exogenic (alcohol, drug,
living conditions) factors.
Children are more sensitive to PA intoxications. The Kwashiorkhor
disease frequently observed with children in Central Africa is also related to
a damage of liver cells by PAs, the liver having lost its ability to synthesize
endogenic proteins.
Besides these effects on the liver, severe toxic pulmonary damages with
pulmonary-arterial hypertension and subsequent right ventricular failure were
observed. When the metabolities can no longer be trapped in the liver cells
they are transported via the blood into the pulmonary arterioles where they
cause damage to the endothelial vessels. In the capillaries the latter are
stimulated to proliferation causing a mediahypertrophy in the arterioles and
thus a pressure increase in the pulmonary circulation and acute right
ventricular failure similar to the classical cor pulmonale [282-286].
The toxicity of several PAs could be directly corroborated by means of
the "yeast test" performed with Saccaromyces cerevisiae [287, 288].
5.2. Carcinogenicity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids
A subtoxic intake (less than 1 mg) of PAs over longer periods resulted
in the following gradually occurring changes of organs:
megalocytosis
VOD
fatty degeneration
proliferation of the biliary
tract epithelials
liver cirrhosis
nodular hyperplasia
adenomas or carcinomas.
The frequent occurrence of primary liver tumors in the natives of
Central Africa and South Africa is ascribed to the consumption of traditional
medicinal plants of the genera Crotalaria, Cynoglossum, Heliotropium and
Senecio. In numerous experiments on animals with plants, with the extracts of
the latter or with the alkaloids occurring in the aforementioned plant genera
or in their species the clinical picture could be confirmed.
5.3. Mutagenicity and genotoxicity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids
The mutagenicity of PAs has already been extensively studied. In this
review article only those studies referring to the medical plants and the
alkaloids contained in the latter are described. The plant extracts or the
alkaloid mixtures of Senecio jacobaea, Senecio nemorensis ssp. fuchsii, Senecio
fuchsii, and Symphytum officinale investigated in different test systems all
exhibited a mutagenic effect. The alkaloids having a relation to the discussed
medicinal plants also possess mutagenic properties. These alkaloids belong to
the plant genera Senecio and Petasites (senecionine, integerrimine, retrosine and
N-oxides, seneciphylline, jacobine, senkirkine), Eupatorium (supinine) and
Symphytum (intermedine, lycopsamine, the N-acetyl derivatives of these,
symphytine, echimidine).
The following test systems were used: Escherichia coli, Salmonella
typhimurium (Ames), Aspergillus nidulans, Vicia faba, Allium cepa, Drosophila
melanogaster, leucocytes from marsupials, hepatic cells from rats and mice,
liver cells from Chinese hamsters, mice and cattle as well as human
lymphocytes. However, the various test systems used afforded different results.
Although it was found that the studied alkaloids exhibit mutagenic properties
the potency of the mutagenicity of the individual alkaloids could not be
ascertained [315-339]. This was only realized by an extensive investigation of
Frei et al. who made use of the wing spot test of Drosophila melanogaster
[340]. 16 alkaloids were tested under the same conditions, thus allowing
comparative studies and even a quantitative assessment of the genotoxicity to
be made for the first time. The following order of decreasing mutagenicity of
the alkaloids was established:
The series starts with the alkaloid with the highest mutagenicity, the
senkirkine. The activity decreases via three powers of ten up to supinine that
displays no activity.
Hence, the macrocyclic alkaloids senkirkine and senecionine possess the
highest activity. Retrorsine which may be regarded as 12-hydroxymethyl
derivative of senecionine exhibits a fivehold weaker mutagenicity. Jacoline
which may also be considered as a hydroxy derivative of senecionine likewise
exhibits a weak effect. Obviously, increasing hydroxylation of necic acids
decreases the mutagenic effect. Among the open-chain diesters
7-acetylintermedine and 7-acetyllycopsamine display a five to ten times weaker
activity than the macrocyclic compounds, while the acetyl esters possess a two
to three times higher activity than e.g. the alkaloids symphytine and
symlandine. The antitumor therapeutic agent indicine N-oxide exhibits only a
very weak mutagenic effect. Obviously, also in this case the general principle
applies that the mutagenic activity decreases with increasing hydroxylation. By
means of this very extensive study the mutagenicity of other alkaloids, which
have not been investigated so far, may be assessed.
5.4. Teratogenicity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids
The teratogenic effect of PAs was demonstrated by a single
intraperitoneal injection of heliotrine into pregnant rats. At concentrations of
50 to 200 mg alkaloid/kg body weight teratogenic changes were observed. Doses
above 200 mg/kg resulted in uterine death and degradation of the fetuses.
Similar results were obtained with heliotrine and its metabolite
dehydroheliotrine, the latter exhibiting however a teratogenicity which 2.5
times as high as that of the initial alkaloid. The teratogenic properties of
heliotrine were also demonstrated by experiments on larvae of fruit flies,
Drosophila melanogaster.
5.5. Metabolism
5.5.1. Metabolism of 1,2-unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Metabolic reactions occur in the liver. A portion of the alkaloids,
which, as is well-known, are esters are hydrolyzed by nonspecific esterases.
The produced necines are supposed to be excreted renally. Alkaloids of this
kind are relatively nontoxic because the necines do not produce toxic
metabolites [344-346]. However, if the carboxylic acids contain branched chains
hydrolysis is strongly impaired by sterical hindrance. If these difficultly
hydrolyzable alkaloids contain as a basic constituent a necine of the
supinidine, heliotridine, retronecine, or crotanecine type they are converted
into the corresponding N-oxides by microsomal oxygenases. These N-oxides
undergo rearrangement and elimination of water to afford the corresponding
dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids. Moreover, hydroxylation of the carbon atoms
adjacent to the nitrogen atom (C-3 and C-8) is also supposed to occur, leading
to the very unstable 3- and 4-hydroxypyrrolizidine alkaloids. Elimination of
water from these alkaloids followed by rearrangement yields the corresponding
dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids [347-3531. As shown in Fig. 9 these alkaloids
possess an allyl structure causing an increase in reactivity.
Also alkaloids of the otonecine type differing from the other PAs by a
methyl group at the nitrogen atom and a "quasi" ketonic function at
C-8 were degraded similarly. After cationic elimination of the methyl group the
nor-N-otonecine alkaloids rearranges to the 8-hydroxy derivative and the latter
to the corresponding dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloid.
Dehydropyrrolizidines representing (A)pyrrolidine (B)pyrrole derivatives
are highly reactive and are the virtually active species of the PAs.
In the presence of nucleophilic systems (Nu-) the diesters undergo either
a simple or a double bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2 reaction). In
parallel occurring reactions a hydrolysis leading to the formation of
dehydronecines (dehydroretronecine, dehydroheliotridine) may also take place.
These compounds are similarly reactive, i.e. their toxicity and carcinogenicity
resemble those of dehydroalkaloids.
According to Mattocks et al. the reaction of the macrocyclic alkaloids
starts in the 7-position. MNDO (Modified Neglect of Differential Overlaps)
calculations, a standard method for determining charges and energy
contributions on van-der-Waals-surfaces, especially in the case of
heteroatom-containing organic molecules, reveal that locations of scission
contain higher partial charges than the other molecular regions. In the case of
dehydrosenecionine these locations are at -0.341 for the 9-H2CO and at -0.328
for the 7-HCO group.
Hydroxy, mercapto or amino groups of enzymes, globulins, hemoglobin but
also of purine and pyrimidine bases or their nucleosides may function as
nucleophiles. Hence, DNS and/or RNS may also undergo alkylations. Already
simple alkylation affords an adduct that causes a lasting change of a DNS
and/or RNS strand. A double alkylation may give rise to irreversible cross
linking of both strands. If no repair process occurs a carcinogenic reaction
may be definitly predicted.
Recently, a further metabolic reaction has been assumed. According to
Segall et al. the alkaloid, e.g. senecionine, is supposed to be degraded to
(E)-4-hydroxy-2-hexenal as demonstrated by the reaction.
Aldehydes with a double bond in the 2,3-position display liver toxic
properties.
5.5.2. Metabolism of 1,2-saturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Saturated pyrrolizidines and their necines are nontoxic. According to
Mattocks et al. the alkaloids platyphylline and rosmarine undergo enzymatic
hydrolytic cleavage at C-7 with simultaneous formation of a pyrrole unit of
ring B.
In contrast to dehydro(A)pyrroles the nitrogen atom of which exists in a
very unstable conjugated state and may thus readily react with nucleophiles,
1,2-saturated pyrrolizidines are considerably more stable and not susceptible
to reactions with nucleophiles.
6. Outlook
After it had been demonstrated that test systems containing some
alkaloids or alkaloid N-oxides exhibited an antitumor effect several attempts
were made to use PAs in medicinal treatment of carcinosis. Since indicine
itself does not show mutagenic properties its N-oxide was successfully applied
in clinical studies on infantile leukemia. Unfortunately, liver damages like
liver necrosis and liver cirrhosis were observed as side reactions so that a
further therapeutic utilization was no longer justified.
In the Pharmacopoea Sinica of 1978 the alkaloid monocrotaline is
described. It was used for the treatment of dermatomas. On account of its
highly toxic and carcinogenic side effects it is not mentioned in the new
edition of 1985 and also no longer used.
The saturated alkaloid platyphylline displays spasmolytic and
antiasthmatic properties and was included in the Pharmacopoe of the former
UDSSR <Soviet Union> (1980). Compared to other spasmolytics and
antiasthmatics it exhibits no particular effect so that it has gained no
importance.
The use of medicinal plants represents a considerable risk of health.
Because of the liberalization of the international world trade an increasing
number of medicinal plants are offered as "miracle drugs" and
imported to Europe without control as the example of the Emilia herb
demonstrates.
Phytologie: Verdauung(kühlend
Fieber/Gelbsucht/Leber/Verdauung
Entzündungshemmend/leicht
beruhigend/antibiotisch
Vorwort/Suchen Zeichen/Abkürzungen Impressum